ISSN : 0971-7447

 

ENSURING RESOURCE SUSTAINABILITY THROUGH EFFICIENT MANAGEMENT FOR ENHANCED RICE PRODUCTIVITY IN WATERSHEDS OF HIGH RAINFALL HILL ZONES OF NORTH-EASTERN HIMALAYA

 

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A.K. Mishra

Soil and Water Conservation Engineering, Water Technology Centre

Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi -110012

 

INTRODUCTION

Rice is one of the main crops of the North-Eastern Himalayan region of India. It is also a major crop of the North Eastern hilly ecosystem with an area of around one million hectare giving an average productivity of 14.5 q/ha (Anonymous, 1995). Use of improved varieties is known to contribute up to 40% of the enhanced yield and thus it plays a key role in increasing the productivity (Borthakur, 1993, Dhillon et al., 2001). Rice cultivation in the NEH region of India is exposed to different biotic and abiotic stresses including the exposure to extreme temperatures at the time of flowering and grain filling stages. The average annual rainfall of the region ranges from 2000-4000 mm and goes as high as 11000 mm in Cherrapunjee area. The production and productivity of the region are low as compared to other regions. Rice is grown in hilly upland areas in the hilly states, which are not much suitable for rice cultivation and the productivity of upland rice is much lower than that of plains. Consequently the average productivity of the region is much below the national average (Figure 1).

Edaphic and climatic factors affecting rice productivity in the North-Eastern Hill region

The topography of the region is highly rugged. In the region, the altitude varies from 500 to  > 3000 m above mean sea level. The climate of the region ranges from subtropical plains to temperate hills with average annual rainfall varying from 1000 to 4000 mm and temperature ranges from below 0oC to above 38oC. The various soil groups are Alfisols, Entisols, Inseptisols, Moillisols and Ultisols. These factors have been listed to substantiate the claim that the region has very good potential for rice production. However, the region is lagging much behind the other advanced states as for as the production and productivity of rice are concerned. In post green revolution period after 1960s, there has been consolidated research efforts in the field of crop improvement and crop production, but the increase is minimal. The region has got rich diversity of local germplasm. Further, it is believed that the NEH region is the birthplace of rice in the world (Borthakur, 1993; Dhillon et al., 2001). But the productivity and production of the rice are low resulting into a lower per capita consumption as well. With the rapid increase in the population, it is highly essential to increase the production of this staple diet of the people to be able to self-sufficient as the potential is already there. Due to environmental and other considerations, it is not possible to expand the horizontal area under the crop. The only alternative is to boost the productivity. That can be increased by:

a)      genetic manipulation and development of high yielding varieties suitable to this region (Gupta et al. 1995; Pattanayak et al., 1998; Reddy et al., 1999 and Gupta, 2001); and

b)      by careful manipulation, efficient and judicious utilization and management of the resources available for rice cultivation in hills (Mishra and Gupta, 1998; Mohanty et al., 1999; Mishra and Satapathy, 2003 and Mishra et al., 2004).

Cultivation practices of rice in hilly watersheds

The rice farming situations in the North Eastern Hills are as follows:

  1. Direct seeded, rain fed in upland (on steep slopes),
  2. Direct seeded rain fed on level bench terraces,
  3. Transplanted on wet terraces; and
  4. Transplanted in valley lands.

1. Direct seeded, rain fed in upland (on steep slopes)

The patches of land are cleared in the hills and vegetation is burnt to make plots for rice cultivation on steep hill slopes. The paddy seeds are directly broad casted on steep hill slopes, which germinate with moisture availability. The crop is mainly grown as rain fed without any control on water application. Provisions, however, are made for safe removal of excess water from the fields by providing drainage channels along the slopes.

2. Direct seeded rain fed on level bench terraces

At slightly lower gradients wherever it is possible, some farmers have converted the slopes into uneven, irregular shape terraces, which may be slopy outward contrary to the requirements of high rainfall hill zones of being slopy inward with a drainage channel at the rim of the slope. In some cases the rice is cultivated on dry terraces of different shapes and sizes as rain fed crop. Where the rice is cultivated as rain fed crop on slopes, there is no careful planning and scientific design of water conveyance and drainage systems; rather the irrigation is applied from one terrace to the other except a few well developed system of rice farming in the region. Indigenous technical know how plays a very significant role in management of nutrients and crop agronomy. Without favourable growth conditions, poor inputs and heavy infestation of weeds, insects and pests attack clubbed with inefficient resources management practices, the rice productivity in the hilly watersheds has been adversely affected resulting in lower production and productivity. (Singh, 1999; Singh and Sharma, 1999). 

 

3. Transplanted on wet terraces

In the states of Nagaland, Sikkim and Manipur the rice is cultivated on carefully designed wet terraces. The water coming from the upstream and highlands is tamed and made to stand behind the bunds. The flow of water is regulated and it is carefully carried from one terrace to the other and finally drained off in the downstream channels leading to streams or nallas. In this system of rice cultivation, there is no control on the movement of nutrients with water (Kannan et al., 1999). Zabo farming system of Nagaland and Apatanis of Arunachal Pradesh are example of a better-managed resource systems but not the well-managed system as has been claimed in the past (Singh and Sharma, 1999). Because in these systems, due to extremely high rainfall resulting into excessively high runoff with disturbances in the soil, it is likely that the soil loss will definitely take place. I have experienced this phenomenon while experimenting with lowland rice cultivation on the experimental farm of the Division of Water Management at ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region, Barapani (Meghalaya) where on a moderate gradient of 2-4%, the runoff velocity in the channels used to become so high that while trying to close a drain with mud, huge soil losses have been found to have occurred (Mishra and Gupta, 1998). With rice cultivation on steeper gradients, in high rainfall hill zone, it is therefore apt to conclude that there are unaccounted, unmonitored and unchecked huge resource wastage, which has rendered large areas poorly fertile for further intensive cultivation.

4.  Transplanted in narrow valley lands

Finally, the most prevalent method of rice cultivation is the transplanted rice in valley lands in which generally the moisture regime is much higher and it is possible to grow transplanted rice in these situations. Every situation is unique in itself and the water management technology for each one is slightly different than the other (Singh, 1999; Singandhupe et al. 1999 and Verma and Srivastava, 1999). Before, going in the depth of the subject, it would be better to study the problem of resources degradation and to understand certain basic concepts and terms used in the field of water management.

Resources degradation in rice cultivation

            Land and water are two major natural resources sustaining all forms of life on this earth. The North Eastern region has been bountifully bestowed with these two resources. In general the productivity of the soils is quite high due to large amount of organic matter content; however due to excessive leaching some of the nutrients are lost with high runoff requiring frequent replenishing. Water as a commodity is so widely available in the region that one seldom gets time to think for its efficient management. However, it is very essential to carefully apply and dispose the water in case of availability and excess. Because, the abundant water takes away the nutrients, which is vital to the crop production, resulting in the loss of productivity. Therefore, to understand the bottlenecks in the production, and for possible scientific research and developmental interventions using various technological options, one has to understand the basic philosophy of rice cultivation in hills and packages of practices associated thereof, following the watershed approach (Mishra et al., 2004).

The watershed approach

Management requirements

To manage the resources for their long term sustainability especially land and water, one primary need is the control over them. That means, we have to have the means to physically control the flow of water from rice fields, distribution and removal, the water can be applied to crop fields when there is a need for it (Brahmananda et al., 2000) and to stop its flow or application when there is no need; direct it to places where it is needed and remove the water from a field when its need has been met (Brahmananda, et al., 2000; Brahmanand, et al., 2000). The above implies that good management of water will require knowledge of:

Ø      water requirement of the crops,

Ø      water supply conditions,  

Ø      losses in conveyance and distribution of irrigation deliveries, and

Ø      to measure the water to apply it uniformly and efficiently.
    Similarly, if the runoff can be checked, controlled and managed, the loss of top soil can be arrested. Considering the wide misunderstanding about the water and watershed management, the concept of watershed management is discussed below and a demarcation is also made between the concepts of water management and watershed management. A link is tried to be established between rice cultivation in hills in high rainfall zone and water management with watershed approach although both the subjects are quite different but interrelated.

Water management

The term water management is often found interpreted differently by different people. It is required to understand some basic concepts, in order to understand water management.

            The term management is defined as “a skilled handling of something; the executive function of planning, organizing, coordinating, directing, controlling any project or activity with responsibility for result; and judicious use of means to accomplish an end”. Water management for agriculture could, therefore, be interpreted to imply skilled and responsible handling of water and judicious use of it for sustainable agricultural production purpose. Thus, water management is a means and not the end in itself. The fundamental objective of managing agricultural water is to produce more profitably. This implies that water has an economic value, a condition that is a prerequisite to applying management concepts (Chandra, 1999; Chandra, 1999; Chandra et al, 1999 and Chandra et al., 2000).

 
Water management : a multidisciplinary approach

It is obvious that proper management requires application of knowledge of several disciplines. This is more or less true regardless of whether the management questions of the individual farmer, farmers, groups or the irrigation systems are considered. Knowledge of agricultural/irrigation engineering, soil science, crop science and social science including agricultural economics, rural sociology, etc. are disciplines often found closely related to the various important aspects of water management. Recently, contributions needs for management science and communication science are also being recognized (Srivastava et al.; 1999, Srivastava, 2000).

Watershed management

Watershed is a geohydrological unit draining at a common point by a system of streams. All lands everywhere are part of some or the other watershed. Essentially, a watershed is all the land and water area, which contributes runoff to a common outlet point. It is a land area that captures rainfall and conveys the overland flow and runoff to an outlet in the main flow channel. It is a topographically delineated area draining in to a single channel. A small watershed of a few hectares draining in to a small stream may form a part of a still larger watershed. All the combined watersheds may become a major river basin draining millions of square kilometres of land. The size of the watershed may vary from a few square meters to several thousand square hectares. The size becomes important, depending upon the objectives of the watershed management. For example for larger irrigation projects, watershed of thousand square kilometres may be considered. On the other hand for a small storage structure in farm (farm pond) consideration of only a few hectares of watershed suffices.

A watershed has a wide-ranging effect on the lives of the people residing in the watershed at large. Soil, water and vegetation are the main important and vital natural resources and watershed affects all of them. Judicious and efficient management of soil, water and vegetation in the watershed can ensure the sustained productivity of food, fuel, fodder, forage, fiber, fruits and small timber.

Watershed as an instrument of sustainable development

An integrated effort of land development for effective soil and water conservation with a view to “in-situ” utilization of rain water for crop production and animal husbandry is the basic approach for watershed management (Verma , 1998; Verma and Srivastava, 1999; Sharada and Sharma, 2001). For providing conditions for optimum utilization of land, water, plants and animal resources and for protecting the environment, it is necessary to treat the land from top to bottom or ridge to valley. Watershed management aims at minimizing risks associated with rainfed farming in hills by following the steps listed below:

Ø      Conserving soil and water resources through mechanical and cultural practices;

Ø      draining out excess water at a safe velocity and directing it for safe storage for its utilization in dry season;

Ø      preventing gully formation through mechanical and vegetative means and storage of water for recharging ground water;

Ø      utilizing land according to its capability and putting marginal lands unsuitable for arable crop production to alternate land uses;

Ø      developing a sustainable ecosystem in harmony with the man-land-water-plant-animal complex of the watershed;

Ø      optimizing agricultural productivity per unit area, time and available water; and

Ø      improving the quality of life of the watershed inhabitants through infrastructure development,

Watershed approach benefits the farmer through improve soil health, better drainage and more efficient use of rain water with the possibility of excess water being stored in suitable structures for use during scarcity periods (Mishra, 1998; Kar, 1999).

Managing hilly and mountainous watershed under rice cultivation in high rainfall zone

Watershed management may be defined as the process of formulating and carrying out a course of action involving manipulations of natural, agricultural and human resources of a watershed to provide resources that are desired by and suitable to the watershed community but under the condition that soil and water resources are not adversely affected. Watershed management practices are thus changes in landuse, vegetative cover and other structural and non-structural changes that are made in a watershed to achieve watershed management objectives. Watershed management is an integrated and interdisciplinary approach. It generally requires land use adjustment measures, which contribute to the reduction in the soil erosion rate vis-a-vis agricultural production, generation of rural employment and balanced growth of the national economy. The watershed management usually involves the use by the people of the watershed area, of the watershed’s natural resources especially the land water and vegetation with the active participation of institutions and organizations and in the harmony with the ecosystem.

Efficient management of resources for rice cultivation in hilly watershed: approach to be followed

            Technological options for water management following watershed approach for different rice farming situations (for different land forms) can be categorized as under:

a)  Rice cultivation on steep hill slopes

   On the first hand as a conservationist, I will not like to advocate that the field crops should be grown on such steeper slopes as it is done in the North Eastern Hills. However, due to socio-economic limitations of the region, it is not practically feasible for planners to always adhere to the land use capability classification. Such relaxations have to be made to enable the farmers to survive. Huge investments are to be made in comprehensive planning and implementation of resources conservation and management strategies with sustainability of resources as an ultimate goal for future generations (Mishra and Gupta, 1998). Till then the rice cultivation has to be permitted despite its adverse impacts on the resources sustainability by adopting suitable conservation measures, such as contour bunding, contour cultivation, terrace cultivation, etc., which are only partially effective. The contour bunds, bench terraces or a combination of both help in retaining 70-80% of rainfall in the treated area of steeper slopes.  The contour bunds should be made by drawing contour lines. Crops can be grown across the slopes either sole or in combination. Vertical intervals between contour bunds or bench terraces are kept with in 0.5 and 1 m for operational convenience. Contour bunds can be formed with local materials as an A-frame device, which functions as a contour marker. The A-frame is an indigenous substitute for expensive theodolite. Contour branches along the bunds or terraces carry the excess flow through grassed waterways in to a common pond. A higher soil moisture regime can be created by allowing maximum precipitation to infiltrate in the soil. A live hedge planted just above the bench acts as soil filter preventing soil erosion and with time makes the terraced bed less slopy. Several plant species are available for planting as live hedge. Of these lopmea, setaria, napier grass, stylosenthes or vetveria (khus) are effective as they are fast growing and some of them can be used as fodder for livestock or as fire wood. It also helps in storing some moisture (Samra et al., 1999). For still steeper slopes with soil depth not less than a meter, horticultural plantation is the most appropriate form of agricultural activity. Mulberry plantation for silk-worm rearing could be another possibility. Hill tops are to be used only for forestry purposes. Such a system allows retention of almost 90 % of rain water within the watershed area reducing the soil loss to less than one tonne/ ha/ year.

b) Rice cultivation on foot hills (dry and wet terraces)

In sub-montane tracts with light textured soils as in the foot hills of the Eastern Himalayan ranges high rates of runoff from big storms may result in to erosion losses to the tune of 20 tonnes soil/ha year or even still higher. Contour farming and bench terracing at suitable intervals supplemented with organic mulching and in-situ water harvesting in runoff reservoirs reduces the erosion losses (Chandra, 1999; Brahmananda et al., 2000). Horti-agri or horti-silvi systems on upper slopes and rice on lower slopes are recommended (Sharma et al., 1999). Provisions should be made for retaining more and more water on level bench terraces. But the plot to plot or terrace to terrace of water movement should be avoided (Brahmanand et al., 2000; Brahmanada et al., 2000). Instead the provisions should be made to safe disposal of water. Finally the water should be routed through the grasses water ways to the natural drainage way. Alternate drying and wetting system is more beneficial than the continuous submergence (Kannan and Brahmanand, 2000). In case it is not possible to keep the water level below a certain minimum level then it should be maintained at 3-5cm (Kannan et al., 1999).

c) Rice cultivation on near flat or valley lands

Elaborate arrangements should be made for drainage of excess water safely. Also, to avoid Al and Fe toxicity, necessary steps should be taken before transplanting. Dug out cum embankment type of water harvesting structures can be created at the lowest elevation for storing the rain water and life saving irrigation can be provided in case of long rainless periods with the stored water (Srivastava et al., 1999; Srivastava , 2000).

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

Watershed management is an umbrella term involving a large sphere of activities for achieving the basic objectives of conservation of soil, water and vegetation for its sustained productivity. It involves the management of all the natural resources including human beings by ensuring their complete participation. Without people’s participation the watershed management objectives are unachievable. Water management is a component of watershed management, be it the large scale water management (development of large irrigation projects) or small scale (management of water for crop production on farm level). The ideal situation, in which the natural balance is maintained, is “no intervention or interference” of any kind in the natural system from outside. It is therefore not feasible in the present situation to attain the normal or ideal natural settings. Cultivation of any form on steep hill slopes is not environmentally safe and sound yet inevitable especially in the North Eastern Hill region. Hence, we should try our level best to work to minimizing the adverse effects simultaneously ensuring the higher productivity and sustainability of the natural resources. Rice cultivation should therefore, be practiced in the hills with lots of care and with proper management. The strategy for good water management should be to use the water efficiently for growing crop ensuring that the flow of water should not hasten the process of soil erosion. Then only we shall be able to achieve the objectives of enhanced productivity of rice with long term sustainability of resources especially land and water on watershed basis.

 

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