ISSN : 0971-7447
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Ravikant Avasthe
World Wide Fund for Nature – India, Sikkim Field Office
Deorali, Gangtok 737 102, Sikkim
Sikkim with its small total geographic area (TGA) of 7096 km2, lying within 270 04' to 28o 07' 48" N latitude and 880 00' 58" to 880 55' 25" E longitude, is administratively divided in to 4 districts: North, East, West and South. North district is the largest in area and least populated. It is a completely land-locked upland area that opens only towards the "Dooars" in West Bengal at the end of the Teesta river basin, with variations in altitude ranging from 300 to 8586m amsl. Geographically, in fact, Sikkim Himalaya is the drainage basin of the mighty river Teesta, which is fed by numerous watersheds in the region.
Historically, the Lepchas, the tribal aborigines of Sikkim, called it "Mayel lee" or the paradise. With the arrival of other inhabitants it was addressed as "Be-Yul Demadzong" (Bhutia, hidden valley of rice) and "Sukhim" (Nepali, the new land). This land, unseen and unscarred for centuries, has only recently (last two decades or so) seen the processes of development (if we can call them so) and the accompanying confusion. The lower hills are vegetated with tropical-subtropical forests and the higher reaches are snow-clad round the year. The climate changes from subtropical to intolerable alpine/arctic as one gains altitude. Only about 11.3% of the TGA is under cultivation while forests cover about 36.5% and almost 25% is barren, rocky and inhabitable terrain. These landforms, being recent in origin, are fragile and susceptible to the forces of weathering and destabilizing actions of man. During the last three Census the state has revealed rapid increase in population and arable land up to 2000m, at places up to 4000m having altitude with 50-60% slope gradient.
Sikkim is a land of immense natural beauty, at places scenes simply leave one dumb found! The picturesque and magnificent Mt. Khangchendzonga (8586m) is the presiding deity, which towers above the entire region and embraces all in its lap. A range of peaks, more than 6000m in height, supports it and together they ensure copious rainfall for a majority of the year almost in the entire area, thus creating conditions most favourable for the growth, development, natural regeneration and evolution of flora and fauna. North Sikkim, biologically well endowed, is facing the most crucial period in recent times. There are two axes diverging from the Chungthang sub-division, North Sikkim - the Lachen axis and Lachung axis. The first of the five surveys, conducted between September 1994 and September 1999, was confined to the Menshithang-Chhaten area specifically to the ammunition depot as a part of the Army Biodiversity Support Programme in September 1994. The second covered perhaps the most inaccessible settlements of North Sikkim, Muguthang in July 1995 while the other three were on both the axes right in to the Tibetan plateau in September 1996, May 1998 and September 1999. North Sikkim exhibits the wonderful feature of intrusion of the Tibetan plateau within its geographic limits, the only portion in India, making it an absolutely unique ecosystem. Like in the other mountain ecosystems, life of people in Sikkim was intrinsically inter-woven with the forests, be it daily subsistence requirement of edibles, medicines, energy and fodder or an occasional hunting instance.
North Sikkim, floristically well endowed, had withstood the ravages of time being subjected to lesser human assaults. Diversity in the useful species distributed the biotic impact on the forests up to the sub-alpine region while the alpine or Greater Himalayas and the trans-Himalayan region revealed an altogether contrasting situation. In the latter, human influence on forests came into greater focus vis-à-vis impact on the vegetation through increased size of grazing animal population compounded with the needs of the transhumance. This had profound influence on the ecology as well as the socio-economics of the area.
The survey area was a part of the North district of Sikkim, located in the Chungthang sub-division spread in an area of 3880 km2. Mainly, the Chungthang - Lachen - Thanggu - Muguthang - Thanggu - Tsho Lhamu and Chungthang - Lachung - Yumthang axes were followed. The area fell under mid hill temperate to alpine/arctic zones. The area was thinly populated because of inhospitable terrain that exhibited very steep slopes and high mountains with dense forests especially on the Lachen axis accompanied by rocky cliffs covered with snow and security restrictions, the area was strategically located with respect to Sikkim's geographical location towards China (Tibet Autonomous Region). There were definite pockets of civilian settlements right up to the International Boundary (IB). The altitudes in the surveyed area varied from 1800 to 6400m above mean sea level (amsl).
ECOLOGY OF THE AREA
Small to large landslides were common sight until one reaches an altitude of c. 3875m amsl. These, probably, resulted from mass wasting caused by build up of excess moisture in the soil (kaolinite and illite rich) holding the massive boulders (Ahmad, 1991). Generally, the rains of 1995 wrought havoc to the road structure of the state, especially of North Sikkim. The bridges that were blown away in July 1995 took a long time to be restored on a more or less permanent basis. On the Lachen axis certain pockets around Zema-I, Zema- III, Zema-IV, 7km from Younge along the Lachen chu bank (towards Thanggu), Yathang and Thanggu strong indicators of considerable biotic interference related to felling and logging of trees for energy and timber requirements were observed. Alternate sources of fuel were scarce. Some open patches with remains of once dense forests and subsequently not planted were noticed. At altitudes above c. 3030m amsl only transhumance was seen. Empty and full coal tar drums were lined along the roadsides at certain locations (2600-3100m), while toxic tar was seen seeping.
The extremely beautiful trek route from Thanggu (c.3875m) in the valleys surrounded by c.5000m+ rocky cliffs and at times on the rocks en route Muguthang (c.4550m) was often discoloured through wanton littering. The litter comprised polybags, tinfoil-lined sachets, glass and plastic bottles (broken included), and empty food cans. This trend was noticed right up to Muguthang. At Muguthang proper, certain patches were used as waste disposal sites of extremely injurious and toxic, non-biodegradable material like glass bottles, used tin cans, worn-out snow boots, plastics, aluminum-lined sachets and the like. These non-biodegradables threatened the general ecology of the area. Similar observations were recorded at places used as the temporary shelters by the army units posted ahead of Yangdi nearing the Tibetan plateau and at some places en route Yumthang.
In the alpine region of Thanggu, evidences of very heavy late season snowfall were recorded. Avalanche-triggered vegetation damage was also noted. The tremendous pressure on tree species at these altitudes was a serious matter. There were exclusive hemlock (Tsuga sp.) forests in the range opposite Samthong towards Thanggu. These were selectively and systematically eliminated. Given the poor natural regeneration rates, this extremely fragile ecosystem may in the near future become a wasteland. To the best of our observation, the present army establishments did not use wood as energy source but for the maintenance of their structures. There were significant number of labourers working for the General Reserve Engineering Force (GREF) and the villages in these regions were trans-humance. Large quantities of wood were stacked in each of the houses. Natural destruction was also an important contributor. The pressure on the high altitude vegetation, however, was highest at Thanggu.
The valley of Muguthang and its surrounding rocky cliffs and mountains were exposed to factors of constant strong wind, heavy to very heavy snow and glaciers. All three were good erosion agencies. The mountains surrounding the valley were severely eroded; rock outcrops, poor regeneration of the exclusive Juniperus sp., dwarf tree species and absence of other vegetation were the other features. Evidences of severe wind erosion were recorded. This loss of soil effected decrease of rangeland and natural medicinal herbs. Heavy snowfall, avalanches and landslides, the other common natural phenomena in these altitudes, caused loss of animal lives both wild and domestic apart from vegetation (Avasthe, 1996).
Physiographically the area can be divided into six zones i.e., (i) the valley area, which is classified as lower glacio-fluvial valley and characterized by coarse-loamy Typic Haplumbrepts and coarse-loamy over fragmental Typic Udicorthents kind of soil family associations, (ii) the very very steep side slope, moderately dissected with 40% forest cover characterized by coarse-loamy Typic Haplumbrepts and loamy-skeletal Typic Udorthents family association, (iii) very steep side slope (33-50%), highly dissected with 20-40% forest cover characterized by coarse-loamy Pachic Haplumbrepts and fine-loamy Umbric Dystrochrepts, (iv) Periglaciated land, characterized by loamy-skeletal Lithic Cryorthents and coarse-loamy Cryumbrepts, (v) rocky cliffs, characterized by coarse-loamy Lithic Udorthents and solid rock, and (vi) very very steep side slope (50%), highly dissected with 20% forest cover, characterized by coarse-loamy Typic Hapludolls and loamy-skeletal Typic Udorthents (NBSS&LUP, 1992).
Generally, the survey area comprised steep hills, valleys and tableland plateau. The hill slopes were covered with dense vegetation of mixed conifers and broad-leaved forests while the valley consisted mainly of riverbank forests. The plateau, however, was a unique landform with vast stretches of bouldery to nearly plain areas with small undulation surrounded by mountains that reached altitudes of c.6000m amsl, revealing a desert-like appearance. The river Teesta originated from lake Tsho Lhamu in the plateau. The main rivers, flowing through the area, were Lhonak Chu, Lachen Chu and Lachung Chu. These rivers ultimately confluence to bring into being the Teesta at Chungthang along with many smaller tributaries, streams and waterfalls.
Climate
The climate of Sikkim in general varies with increase in altitude. The survey area was no exception; with rapid increase in altitude the climate changed from mid-hill temperate to severely cold alpine desert. This part of Sikkim witnessed rain and snowfall of high intensity and quantum; the relative humidity was reportedly seldom lower than 70% and the temperatures ranged from 20oC (maximum) to 5oC (minimum). From May to September and December to March this area experienced maximum rain and snow. The summers were short and pleasant while the winters were often prolonged with post-season snowfall.
The only mode of mobility within North Sikkim, as in entire Sikkim, was by road and they were the worst effected during rains by way of landslides, soil subsidence and washing away of bridges. The middle hills had borne the major brunt of these rains and with progressive increase in altitude one witnessed gradual decrease, in intensity, quantum and duration.
The luxurious vegetation varied from midhill temperate to alpine zone with a dominance of broad-leaved species which changed to alpine as one moved up. The dominating tree species were Alnus nepalensis, Populus ciliata, Prunus cerasoides, Erythrina arborescens, Juglans regia, Quercus sp., Castonopsis tribuloides, Prunus nepalensis, Rhus succeedanea, Symplocos theifolia, Michelia sp., Terminalia myriocarpa, Quercus lineata, Acer sp., Abies densa, Zanthoxylum sp., Picea sp., Juniperus sp., Tsuga sp., Laryx grifithii, Salix sp., Betula sp., Sorbus sp., Rhododendron sp., etc. Common shrubs were Arundinaria sp. (bamboos), Edgeworthia gardneri, Maesa rugosa, Oxyspora paniculata, Rhus semialata, Hippophae salicifolia, Hydrangea sp., wild palms (Pandanus sp.), wild Musa sp. The ground flora was extremely rich and diverse. The forests were generally dense with low evidences of biotic interferences except the easily accessible ones.
The surveyed area revealed broad types of forests, such as (i) temperate broad-leaved forests, (ii) temperate conifer forests, (iii) sub-alpine scrubs, (iv) temperate grasslands and (v) alpine meadows or rangelands.
(i) Temperate broad-leaved forests
These were not very extensive but existed in patches along the wet areas and revealed tendency to get mixed with scattered conifers like Tsuga sp. and Abies densa. The main tree species were Alnus nepalensis, Prunus cerasoides, Populus ciliata, Erythrina arborescens, Juglans regia, Quercus sp., Prunus nepalensis, Rhus succedanea, Symplocos theifolia, Michelia sp., Terminalia myriocarpa, Quercus lineata and Acer sp. Mingled with these tree species were many shrub like Hippophea salicifolia, Arundinaria sp., Edgeworthia gardneria, Maesa rugosa, Oxyspora paniculata, Rhus semialata, Berberis sp., Artemesia vulgaris, Rubus elipticus, Hydrangea sp., wild palms, Musa sp., Elaeaganus sp., Buddleja sp. and others.
An array of herbaceous flora was found associated with them, which included among others Anaphalis sp., Rumex sp., Satyrium sp., Correa nepalensis, Prunella sp., Valeriana sp., Potentilla sp., Impatiens sp., Corydalis sp., Selinum sp., Rubia sp., Galium sp., Urtica sp., Elsholtzia sp., Plantago sp., Halenia sp., Lycopodium sp., Geranium sp., Polygonum sp., Swertia sp., Hydrocotyl sp. and Drymaria cordata, etc. These were especially plenty and crowded areas of slight clearance forming a thick ground cover. Certain strong climbers such as Crawfordia sp., Clematis sp., and Schizandra sp. were also observed. The trees were covered thickly with lichens of both foliose and fruticose type. Some ferns were also noticed as epiphytes on tree trunks. On moist trunks there was thick moss cover too. These forests were found mainly nearby Chungthang, Lachen, Lachung and Yumthang.
(ii) Temperate conifer forests
These forests were quite extensive and appeared concentrated over hill slopes. Silver fir (Abies densa) was the most dominant species. Amongst the fir forests, pockets of Indian willow (Larix sp.) with distinct lanky branches and pale green colour were recorded, either in pure patches or scattered.
Strong layer of shrubs comprised Hippophea sp., Salix sp., Viburnum sp., Artemesia vulgaris, wild palms, Rhododendrons, Berberis sp., Heracleum sp., Rosa sp., Arisaema sp., Aconogonum sp. and others. Herbaceous flora was well developed and consisted of Anaphalis sp., Corydalis sp., Rhodiola sp., Polygonatum sp, Epipogeum sp., Halenia sp., Urtica sp., Juncus sp., Pedicularis sp., Bistorta sp., Persicaria sp., Prunella sp., Plantago sp., Swertia sp., Rumex sp., Primula sp., Gentiana sp. etc. There was a good representation of temperate climbers.
(iii) Temperate grasslands
Patches of grassy vegetation were observed among exposed steep rocky slopes. Tall grasses were the only plant representation in such areas. Factors other than strong winds such as chilling winters and fire may result in the development of such high altitude grasslands. In Yumthang valley, these grassy slopes were characteristic.
(iv) Sub-alpine scrubs
Above the temperate conifer forest was the timberline at an altitude of 3900m amsl. The vegetation, which lacked tall tree species, exhibited dwarf shrubs and tall herbs growing in open clusters. These were observed along riverbanks, slopes and bouldery plains upto 4500m amsl. Very conspicuous sites were noticed above Yangdi, Giagong and near Gochung bridge. Rhododendrons were the naturally dominating species. Amongst others Salix sp., Gaultheria sp., Cotoneaster sp., Berberis sp., Juncus sp., Myricaria sp., Geranium sp., Pedicularis sp., Aster sp., Inula sp., Erigeron sp., Senecio sp., Berginia sp. and others were recorded. These species grew in random fashion mingling with the taller Rheum nobile, Saussurea sp., Heracleum sp., Ligularia sp., Aconitum sp., etc. The dwarf Juniperus sp. was the only most important conifer species.
(v) Alpine meadows
These were the most remarkable vegetation features of North Sikkim beyond altitude c.4800m amsl on the geomorphologic landform of the Tibetan plateau. There was no tall vegetation and most were either cushionoid or rossetted. These were the modifications that they had undergone to adapt to the extremely hostile climate prevailing there as short photo periods, low to very low (cryic to pergillic regimes) temperatures and high velocity winds (40 -50 knots per hour). From a distance the landscape appeared dry, dull brown landmass but from close quarters, vegetation actually comprised of dry grasses, cushionoid growths of Gentiana sp., Cynanthus sp., Arenaria sp., Parnassia sp., Saxifraga sp., Sedum sp., Stellaria sp., Thylacospermum sp., tall plants of Urtica hyperborea and the like. Incidentally, the later appeared as the tallest in the plateau with its height of 30cm. This harmless looking plant protected its flowers by its own detlexed imbricate leaves. Gentiana sp., Delphinium sp., etc., added blue colour to the otherwise drab landscape. The soil was rocky and skeletal. In such surroundings, the spreading of four-leaved Phlomis rotata was an unforgettable sight! The abundance of Crassulaceae, Ranunculaceae, Gentianaceae and Asteraceae representatives made the plateau unique. In a 1m quadrate, 5-11 species were noticed in the plateau depending on the site surveyed (Haridasan, 1996).
The flora studied in the surveys was particularly admirable in relation to its human utility. A number of families of flowering plants were represented in these hills that ranged from the primitive Rananculaceae to the most advanced Orchidaceae. The main families of species recorded include Rananculaceae, Crassulaceae, Gentianaceae, Apiaceae, Rosaceae, Asteraceae, Caryophyllaceae, Scrophulariaceae, Salicaceae, Ericaceae, Polygonaceae, Poaceae, Hypericaceae and others. These families of flowering plants were more abundant compared to others.
The vegetation of an area is manipulated by numerous factors that could be both natural and/or man-made. These manifest into modifications in the vegetation and flora to different extents. North Sikkim too was no exception. The major causes as identified were (i) natural - high intensity rainfall, landslides, heavy to very heavy snowfall and avalanches, (ii) biotic - human exploitation and grazing.
High intensity and prolonged rainy season had, along with favourable temperatures, been one of the main factors that rendered conditions conducive for the most natural evolution of flora in North Sikkim, especially in the mid-hill to sub-alpine zones. But the high intensity rains in these fragile and relatively young mountains in the Himalayan range have amplified destabilizing effects on the entire ecosystem. The most natural impact of such prolonged rainy season was landslides that eliminated vegetation in small pockets and these exposures of the hill slopes favours only pioneering species to colonize. Thus, patches of secondary vegetation were recorded amidst natural vegetation (Haridasan, 1996).
Ecology and economics are siblings although disputable ones, and exhibit a very strong link, more so in the mountain scenario. Human relations with nature date back to the origin of mankind, this is more apparent in the case of mountain life systems. The trans-humance population of the survey area moved about with their grazing animals and simultaneously collected medicinal herbs, aromatic plants, edibles and most significantly firewood, the only source of energy.
The Chungthang sub-division is smaller of the two in North Sikkim and has 5 revenue blocks with 3 forest blocks and special areas. In an area of 3880 km2, falling mostly under reserved forests, there was a population of approximately 7100 (Census, 1991). People, living in these areas, were largely tribal of Buddhist faith. Agriculture formed the main occupation of people of the area in randomly located patches along riverbanks while collection of wild edibles was significant. The micro-hydel power plants at Chhaten and Lachung provided domestic power supply. For cooking a part of the energy came in the form of LPG (liquefied petroleum gas) while the major source was derived from wood. Concomitantly, the low mean annual air temperature necessitated regular burning of wood for heating purposes. Obviously, this wood originated from the nearby forests. This part of Sikkim fell under the restricted area given its proximity to the international border and featured widespread presence of the defence forces.
The Chungthang-Lachung-Yumthang axis was opened for tourists only in 1993. The movement of foreign nationals was still highly restricted but the area has witnessed considerable inflow of domestic travellers over the short time of its accessibility particularly so in view of the limited tourism infrastructure. Since 2000 there has been further relaxation for the domestic tourists who visit the lake Gurudongmar with appropriate permits from the authorities.
There were 13 Buddhist families with a total population of 83, living in stone built houses at Muguthang in 1996. The average number of children surviving/ever married woman was 5. But the 'pipon' expressed concern over the low birth rate! Heads of these families had their origin in Khamba in Tibet. Till some 35 years ago these families lived six months at Muguthang and six months in Tibet until they finally immigrated. All the family heads were grazers as well as traders. They owned yaks, sheep and horses also. They possessed good knowledge of medicinal plants. Fifteen children attended a single-teacher-run government primary school. The well of residents had their wards in schools at Gangtok and Kurseong while a few attended colleges at Varanasi, Delhi, Bangalore and Himachal Pradesh. The villagers managed their affairs through a panchayat, locally called ‘dzumsa’ (a form of local self government) where the 12-member body elected its "head" designated as 'pipon' for a year's term (Avasthe, 1996).
The residents had no land ownership rights and paid a nominal royalty of Rs. 1.50 per yak and Rs. 0.50 per sheep to the State Forest Department. Except a few, the majority stayed at Muguthang for 6-7 months. For this duration, the daily ration and other essentials were supposedly brought from Gangtok where they marketed the yak and sheep milk products. All their cargo was transported individually (yaks on hire cost Rs. 200 for 2 loads) while religious celebrations were a contributory affair. No bank loan facility resulted in the residents borrowing cash from moneylenders in Gangtok. The cost of ration doubled by the time it reached Muguthang. Regular sources of income identified were sale of yak @ Rs. 4000-8000/yak and sheep @ Rs. 600-1000/sheep, their milk by-products, wool and fur. Animals were their only source of income with no other avenue for additional earnings (Avasthe, 1996).
Approximately 110 transhumance families lived between Samthong and Thanggu from April to November, when they migrated to lower altitudes. Their houses were wooden and energy generation came from wood. They have consumed large quantities of wood derived from Rhododendron sp., Betula sp., Tsuga sp., Sorbus sp., Abies densa, Juniperus sp. They owned large populations of grazing animals and have traditionally used these alpine meadows during summer. Professionally, these migrants were grazers who collected medicinal plants in sizeable quantities for supplementary income.
The general topography was undulating at Muguthang. The soils were skeletal except for random hydro and aeolian deposits in the depressions where shallow loamy black soils were observed. One patch of land, about an acre in area, was used to grow potato, radish and raya saag (Brassica sp.) in one season April to October. The vegetables were grown using seeds produced from the previous season. Animal dung was used as manure. All cultural operations were manual and seeds were line sown. The cultivation was clean while animals were allowed to graze on the stubble. The remainder stubbles were neither ploughed under nor left on the surface. Insect-pests and diseases were thus far not recorded on field whereas potato did have the problem of stored grain pests. The sight of first rain-bearing clouds heralded the sowing of seeds. 40-kg seeds yielded 160-280 kg of potato, while a total of 160-280 kg of radish was also obtained. Potato was stored deep in land for use during winters.
Much of the land on N-NW axis leading to Thanggu and N-NE axis to Yumthang from Chungthang was steep to very steep sloped under moderately dense to very dense forest cover, hence limited valley banks were cultivated with potato, pulses, vegetables, maize, phaphar (Fagopyrum sp.) and plantations of large cardamom (Ammoum subulatum Roxb.).
Of the 90 families in 1998 that resided at Thanggu alone, some 19 families owned yaks (range, 20-150 yaks per family) and sheep (some families had exclusively sheep, herd size, 400-500), goats (per family ranged from 5-20), horses or mules (4-12 per family) (Primary data). At Muguthang, yaks, sheep and horses were the animals owned. Sheep, left in open pastures during days for grazing and enclosed into stone-fenced barns during nights, were reared for milk (maximum yield of 1 kg per adult), wool and meat (sold @ Rs. 600-1000 per sheep). Horses were used for riding and transportation purposes.
But it was yak that shared a special relationship and performed a pivotal role in the life of the residents. Yak was a semi-domesticated animal that required minimum traditional maintenance. Yak, reportedly could survive hungry for almost 20 days in acute winters! The 1994-95, 1995-96 and 1997-98 winters experienced some of the heaviest snowfalls in recent times that resulted in the death of almost 20-25 per cent of the yak population here. Yak, a multi-purpose animal yielded valuable products-milk (maximum 1 kg per animal), meat (200-300 kg per animal), fur, dung manure, hides and the like. If properly trained, yak was found to be the most reliable mode of transport and travel. There were about 800 yaks, which along-with 200 odd sheep and scores of wild ungulates formed a formidable grazing population that exerted tremendous pressure on the meagre vegetation of Muguthang area. Prices of yak ranged from Rs. 4000-8000 per yak.
Yak could be used in toto. A kilogram (kg) of its milk yielded 0.25kg "churpi" (butter) from a "dhongmo" by the traditional process that involved the entire family. Lesser amount of ghee (clarified butter) was generated. This “churpi” and its smoke-dried form were relished and in great demand. Meat was also smoke-dried and preserved for winters. Inbreeding had caused a fall in the standards of yaks, thus, in the quality and quantity of the products. This was the major concern as the residents were heavily dependent on yaks. Blood of yak was man's last food in times of acute desire to survive!
Yak skin was tanned before use for purposes such as storage of ghee. All these products were marketed at Gangtok. The fur of yak from different parts of the animal were used for different purposes such as: belly fur for making tents, moulted fur for tents and ropes, tail was used as such during prayers, etc. Horns formed house decorative pieces (trophies) and chopped horns were used for salt and medicine drenching of the yaks. Every alternate year an offspring per animal was born through inbreeding. Breeding season extended from July to September and the newborn weaned till they could graze (Avasthe, 1996).
Yaks were diagnosed to suffer from foot and mouth disease, tempanitis, common diarrhoea, respiratory problem, poisoning, ringworm and fungal infections. Internal parasites such as flukes, tapeworms’ and external parasites like lice and ticks and faulty/mal-nutrition were common. Animal Husbandry Department of the State Government had put in appreciative efforts to reach FMD vaccinations and medicines to this difficult area with good efficacy. Food shortage during snow was a cause of natural deaths here (Bhutia, P., 1996 Pers. Commun.). Grazing in open pastures was the normal feeding procedure among yaks, sheep and horses. Grazing in the open pastures was controlled, decided by community meetings where animals would graze on one pasture for a month and then moved to next in following months.
At Thanggu, seasonally, medicinal plants viz., Gentiana sp., kutki (Picrorhiza kurroa), bikh (Aconitum sp.), jatamansi (Nardostachys grandiflora jatamansi), panch angula (Orchis latifolia) were collected and marketed in 1998 at the following rates: Rs. 125/kg dry weight, Rs. 1600-1800 per 40 kg d.w, Rs. 800-1200 per 40 kg d.w, Rs. 1400-1600 per 40 kg d.w. and Rs. 300-500 per kg d.w., respectively. Thanggu and surroundings were supposedly bestowed with about 80 medicinal plants. Interaction with Mr. Chewang Lama, Practitioner of Tibetan pharmacology revealed that Thalspi arvense L. and Rheum palmatum had become were rare. Another natural source exploited for income was Juniperus sp. (J. recurva, J. prostrata), which was marketed in sun-dried form to Kalimpong @ Rs. 35-40 per 40 kg d.w. for preparation of incense. The dried leaves with twigs were packaged and used as incense.
Fauna
The area included the habitat of Snow leopard (Panthera uncia), Blue Sheep and Musk Deer, while the entire region served as the habitat of the Southern kiang (Equus kiang polydon), Great Tibetan sheep or nayan (Ovis ammon hodgsoni), Tibetan Gazelle (Procapra picticaudata), Bharal or Blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur), Red Panda (Ailurus fulgens), Red fox (Vulpes montana), Himalayan tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus schaferi), Tibetan wolf (Canis lupus chanko), Himalayan mouse hare or pika (Ochotona royeli), Woolly hare (Lepus oiostolus), Himalayan marmot (Marmota caudata), Yellow-throated marten (Martes flavigula), Indian wild dog or dhole (Cuon alpinus), Himalayan Black bear (Selenarctos thibetanus), civets, etc. Recently the pugmarks of Himalayan Brown bear (Ursus arctos) have been re-recorded from here. Most of these animals are listed in the Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act (1972). The area was also very rich in avifaunal diversity.
In the surveys of the Department of Forest, Government of Sikkim (SFD) (Lachungpa C. 1998, Pers. Commun.), WWF-India and others the following data on fauna was recorded:
Snow leopard: 03 (SFD, 1992); 01 (Shah, 1994)
Blue sheep: 18 (Shah, 1994); 101 + (State Forest Deptt.,1995)
Great Tibetan sheep or Nayan: 17 (SFD, 1995); 29 (SFD and WWF-India, 1996)
Tibetan gazelle: 58 (Shah, 1994); 33 (SFD, 1995)
Southern kiang: 74 - 120 (Shah, 1994); 11 (SFD, 1995)
Tibetan/Red fox: 09 (Shah, 1994); 02 (SFD, 1995)
Tibetan wolf: 09 - 15 (1994); 12 - 30 (1995) (based on the interviews of Dokpas, tribal residents of the Tibetan plateau)
Himalayan marmots: Many (SFD and WWF-INDIA, 1996), widespread throughout the area
Snow pigeon: 08 - 14 (SFD and WWF-INDIA, 1996)
Brahminy duck: 01 pair (SFD and WWF-INDIA, 1996)
Himalayan Brown bear: pugmarks photographed, 1996
Himalayan Mouse hare: common throughout the plateau
The entire Sikkim serves as the catchment of the mighty river Teesta. There are over 150 lakes of which the majority exist in North Sikkim. Many of them are located at altitudes above 4000m amsl and glacial in origin, which more than often are nesting and/or breeding sites of various resident (temporary and permanent) and migratory water fowl such as Brahminy/Ruddy Shelduck (Tadorna ferrugina), Black-necked crane (Podiceps nigricollis), pintail (Anas acuta), Barheaded goose (Anser indicus), Common teal (Anas crecca), Wigeon (Anas penelope), Gadwall (Anas strepera), Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos), Coot (Fulica atra), Shoveller (Anas clypeata), Common pochard (Aythya ferina), Scaup duck (Aythya marila), Garganey (Anas querquedula), etc.
More importantly, river Teesta originated in the plateau from Lake Tsho Lhamu at an altitude of above c.5000m. Some other important lakes are Gayum chhona, Gurudongmar, Chaprutsko and Chhomozumo chhoi. The river Teesta flows south from its origin and was joined by other rivers such as Lhonak chu, Rabom chu, rivulets and numerous water falls as it gains momentum and turbulence on the Lachen axis. The Lachung chu, also aided by many tributaries, is menacing by the time it reaches Chungthang where it confluences into Teesta (also known as Lachen chu).
Significance of North Sikkim is its high diversity in both flora and fauna. Given the dependence of the human population on natural resources like forests, the threats/concern for the biological diversity here were both abiotic and biotic.
(a) Abiotic
Main factors were natural and/or climatic. The Khangchendzonga range has profound influence over entire Sikkim especially on North Sikkim. As mentioned earlier, this region experiences high to very high rain (May to September) and snow (December to March) annually. Both trigger landslides and mass wasting and avalanches, respectively, causing considerable decimation of both flora and fauna. In winter the grazing fauna, domestic and wild, face rather harsh conditions and elimination.
(b) Biotic
The biotic pressure is mostly due to traditional life style and many peculiarities of the area, such as verticality and accompanying rapid variations in the vegetation. Most parameters mentioned below are strongly integrated in to the social fabric of the society at large in the area.
(i) Grazing
The large herds of yak and sheep that were maintained did certainly exercise immense pressure on the limited rangeland in the plateau where they are generally grazed. The Tibetan plateau attracted wild ungulates such as kiangs, Great Tibetan sheep, Blue sheep, and Tibetan Gazelle from across the IB, especially during the lean period in the Tibet Autonomous Region. Limited grazing potential created an unhealthy inter-species competition, often leading to population decimation in large numbers particularly in winters, which could be termed as "natural culling"?
(ii) Collections from wild
1. NTFPs
Tender ferns, nettles, fresh bamboo shoots, certain rhizomes and tubers were collected for daily subsistence. Certain fruits, fodder leaves, honey, dyes, etc. on a need-basis were also gathered. However, the collection of the medicinal plants by the grazers and the Juniperus sp. as incense from the wild over a very long period of time was the major concern. Though the Department of Forests, Government of Sikkim undertook propagation of kutki (Picrorhiza kurroa), much remained to be done, particularly on the status of others medicinal plants and silver fir (Abies densa) in their natural habitats.
2. Timber and fuel wood
Only recently constructed houses of the few effluent families in Lachen and Lachung were cement-concrete structures. The poor still survived in wooden houses with thatched roofs. Regular maintenance of these houses under the prevalent climatic conditions consumed timber species, even those of the military settlements though in lesser volumes. But it was the demand of elite species of Magnolias, Michelias and Silver fir in the towns of Mangan and Gangtok that lured people into illegal felling for cash gains.
The altitudes within this small gap of Sikkim varied from 300 to 8585m amsl and in the survey area from 1800 to 7000m, where the mesic to frigid/pergillic mean annual air temperature regimes for majority of the year ensured high-energy oriented life style. Regular burning of fire seemed inevitable in the houses of almost the entire tribal populace. Additional pressure came from the floating labour force of the General Reserve Engineering Force (GREF), who indulged in illegal collection of fuel wood. Main activity of GREF was construction and maintenance of roads in North Sikkim as in other parts and consumed large quantities fuel wood for road construction (melting tar coal/bitumen).
(iii) Trade
Most of the illegal wildlife related activities in the area were because of demand from distant places, such as Gangtok in Sikkim and other places in India. Most of the forests were categorized in the “reserved”, hence, all the felling of silver fir (Abies densa), Indian willow (Salix sp.), birch (Betula sp.), asare (Viburnum sp.), oak (Quercus sp.) and walnut (Juglans regia) or any other species lopped for fuel or timber was illegal. Collections of medicinal plants were made by grazers, which included jatamansi (Nardostachys grandiflora jatamansi), kutki (Picrorhiza kurroa), panch angula (Orchis sp.), bikh (Aconitum sp.), Gentiana sp. Among others large quantities of dhupi (Juniperus sp.) and sunpati (Rhododendron sp.) were collected till the recent ban on all collections from the wild, by the Government of Sikkim. However, the effectiveness of the ban promulgated in these remote areas needs to be studied. Clandestine exploitation certainly has been going on, given the remoteness, unfriendly terrain and inaccessibility of these areas.
(iv) Tourism
The legal status of the study area from the Ministry of Home Affairs and Ministry of Defense was one of "restricted/protected area" until 1993 when it was thrown open to Indian citizens and later on to foreign nationals as well. The enchanting Yumthang valley on the N-NE axis was a prime destination. Annually, the area has witnessed an increase in visitors. The infrastructure remained to be developed to sustain tourism, especially the precarious road link and energy requirements. Unless tourism in these pristine areas, witnessing a boom presently, is “regulated within the carrying capacity” there lurks an imminent danger of early exhaustion.
(v) Dilution of culture
This area had maintained many traditional systems as constituents of their social fabric. One most important was a form of ‘local self governance’. Under the name of ‘dzumsa’, a locally elected body headed by a ‘pipon’ strictly regulated the society at large, including violations of norms related to nature by imposing suitable penalties or punishments. Largely, the people followed the Buddhist faith and highly God-fearing leading a very simple life. In the older days, as an independent nation, they had strong trade and other links with Tibet. The heads of monasteries known as ‘Rimpochee’s’ were also from Tibet. After the 1962 war with China, these trade and religious links slowly disappeared. Religion was a strong constituent of the social fabric in this area. Merger of Sikkim with India altered the financial situation in entire Sikkim significantly. The people have become more materialistic. Living standards and life styles, over the last two and a half decades, have changed to less sustainable, leading to lavish consumption of timber species like silver fir (Abies densa), which was singled out for special onslaught. As a result, one witnessed denuded or thinly forested mountains on the N-NE axis till Lachung. Increase in population and fragmentation of families’ also amplified pressures on natural resources. Westernization of the present generation is probably a threat to the culture of the region.
(vi) Erosion of genetic resource base
Exploitation of medicinal plant species, Juniperus sp. and some Rhododendron sp. for incense purposes reached commercialization levels until the ban on their collections from wild was carried out. A complete stoppage of these activities is ruled out, given the lure for money particularly for grazers. This practice had very old history while there was no documentation on the status of medicinal plants in the wild. The demands have risen with time and extractions were definitely beyond their natural regeneration capacities. If this practice has to continue more so because of the prevalence of Tibetan pharmacopoeia in the State, these essential medicinal plants used as ingredients in drugs need to be domesticated to keep pace with demands. Other than medicinal plants, exploitation of certain tree species like silver fir (Abies densa), Magnolia sp., and Michelia sp. too had attained commercial levels. Nevertheless, silver fir (Abies densa), which showed good self-regeneration potential, needed to be properly tapped. The other group of plants that were an asset in the region was the rhododendrons.
An area of 43 km2 in Singba, known as the Singba Rhododendron Sanctuary, was a natural gene pool of rhododendrons where 36 species were recorded. Heavy rain, snow, landslides and avalanches along with human interference posed grave threat to the existence of rhododendrons in the times to come. This area also revealed wild relatives of buckwheat (Fagopyrum sp.) and fenugreek (Heracleum sp.). Many species of beans have been cultivated in Sikkim for long; this region too was no exception. The traditional ‘Murli’ maize was in fact a sub-race of the most primitive of races of Indian maize - ‘Poorvi Botapa’ (Singh, 1977). Both races were cultivated in North Sikkim for very long (Singh, 1977) but the advent of new cultivars and hybrids, introduced in Sikkim over the last three decades, effected their gradual disappearance from the agricultural scenario of entire Sikkim.
(vii) Role of defence agencies
Indian army has a strong and significant presence particularly so in North Sikkim given its strategic location with respect to China (Tibet). Their year round presence should be used to involve them in various conservation related efforts. Similarly, there was the presence of GREF personnel along with a sizeable labour force along with some Sikkim police personnel. These different agencies could be educated and utilized to generate database on information related to various aspects of nature.
CONSERVATION MEASURES
There are various forces, both biotic and abiotic, working against the rich biological diversity in this area. Conservation measures are the demand of the hour; some viable conservation measures, to bear fruit, are discussed below:
The author is extremely grateful to the officers of the HQ 17 Mtn Div and the 112 Mtn Bde especially Maj. Gen. C.M. Seth, Brig. S.S. Kanbargimath, Col. S.J.S. Sangra, Col. U.M. Maindarkar, Col. V.K. Pahwa, Maj. Khanduri, Maj. V.K. Raizada, Lt. Kesavan and other ranks. I wish to thank Dr. K. Haridasan, Scientist, SFRI, Itanagar and Shri Ajay Rastogi, then Sr. Programme Officer, WWF-India Arunachal Pradesh Field Office. My wife, Dr. Yashoda and son, Vismaiy are thanked for moral support and bearing with my absence for long durations. Shri Kamal Sharma is thanked for the secretarial assistance. These surveys were a part of the on-going field based activities funded by John D. & Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation, USA.
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Shah, Nita V., 1994. Status Survey of Southern Kiang in Sikkim. Department of Zoological Sciences, Jiwaji Rao University, Baroda. p.19
Singh, Bhag, 1977. Races of Maize in India. Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi 110 001. p. 106.
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